The Ukpan obọ eva (coral-bead crossed baldrics) were worn as part of the ehaingbehia, the full ceremonial regalia, by only high-ranking members of the palace, including the Ọba himself, the Iy’Ọba, the Edaiken, and the Ezọmọ (Ben-Amos 1999, pp. 68, 141; Osadolor in Plankensteiner 2007, cat. no. 70, pp. 322–323).

Ọba gha ye Ivie gie ọwan, ẹ ghi tama rẹn ehe nọ gha bae yi (When the Ọba gifts you a bead, he doesn’t tell you how to wear it) (Daniel Inneh, pers. comm., 27 September 2025).

Iviawẹ (also spelled ĺvîowẹ) are coral-beaded anklets, often worn stacked together (Aigbe 1985, p. 28; Okpokunu, Agbontaen-Eghafona & Ojo 2005, p. 162; Ọbazee 2025, p. 279). Many of the figures depicted on the Emwin Arhe (royal treasures) in brass, bronze, ivory, and wood are shown wearing these. According to Daniel Inneh (pers. comm., 27 September 2025), beads were sent to people whom the Ọba wished to honour, although there was no directive on how to wear them.

Mostly, people who wear Iviawẹ are identified as palace chiefs or priests and priestesses. However, today anyone can wear them as cultural identifiers or fashion pieces.

The Ẹkpẹn (leopard) is an animal that appears most often among the motifs decorating the Emwin Arhe (royal treasures). The Ẹkpẹn symbolises the valour and strength of the Ọba, as well as his political authority. The Benin people eulogise the Ọba as the ‘ẹkpẹn n'owa’ (leopard of the home).

When a hunter kills a leopard, he must say “ẹkpẹn n'oha” (I killed a bush leopard), as it is taboo to say that a hunter killed a leopard without specifying that it is a bush leopard, as otherwise this would “be tantamount to symbolically killing the king” (Nevadomsky 1988, p. 81). For this reason, leopards of the bush are called Atalakpa to distinguish them from those that represent the Ọba.

The Umọmọ is an L-shaped hammer made of iron that holds profound importance, symbolising power, transformation, and spiritual efficacy. The hammer is fundamentally associated with Ogun, the god of iron, embodying “the force inherent in metal, [with] a mystical power with the potential to create or destroy” ( ). This dual aspect of the hammer—its capacity for both shaping and destruction—mirrors the formidable power of the Ọba. The L-shaped hammer is often associated specifically with Ọba Eresonyẹn, as it most commonly appears within the visual language of Emwin Arhe (royal treasures) that he commissioned, for example, held by Ewua figures and on one ornate cast Ẹrhẹ, thought to have been Ọba Eresonyẹn’s throne (id. no. 209779) ( ).

The hammer is notably held by figures identified as Ewua palace officials or Ohensa priests, who also wear a cross pendant on their chests. The consistent portrayal of these figures holding the Umọmọ underscores its connection to the origins of the Benin dynasty and the spiritual authority of the Ọba. Ọba Esigie, the powerful 16th-century “warrior king”, is credited with encouraging ironworking, further solidifying the hammer’s link to royal martial strength and divine kingship.

Appearing on Aken'ni Elao (carved ivory tusks), Ama-Ẹrọnmwọn (bronze relief plaques), and even as a charm, the hammer symbolises the Ọba’s ability to “mold and transform” events, to overcome challenges, and to provide spiritual protection ( ). Its presence thus reinforces the complex interplay of hierarchy, spiritual authority, and military might within the Benin Kingdom, consistent with other potent symbols such as the Akọn Ẹkpẹn (leopard’s tooth neck ornament). The Umọmọ often appears on Emwin Arhe (royal treasures) believed to have been commissioned during the reign of Ọba Eresonyẹn ( ; ).

Other terms for hammer in Edo are Avan or Avalaka ( ), which are used interchangeably with Umọmọ by members of the Igun-Ẹrọnmwọn.

Asa (shields) are a crucial attribute of warriors and warrior chiefs, forming part of their ceremonial and battle attire as represented on the Emwin Arhe (royal treasures). Asa were usually made from elephant or crocodile skin and used by warriors for protection during hand-to-hand combat (Osadolor 2001, p. 102). Interestingly, the form of Asa depicted on historic royal artefacts differs from those found in museum collections today, reflecting changes in shield shapes and designs over time.

Asoro (spears) were used as weapons in battle and for hunting ( ; Ọbazee 2025, p. 37). According to , there were two types: long and short. Figures holding Asoro are often depicted on Ama-Ẹrọnmwọn (bronze relief plaques), sometimes in battle scenes and at ceremonies and festivals.

Odigba (coral-beaded collar) is a rigid neck collar made of coral beads, worn as part of ceremonial attire only by senior princes who have been made Enigie (Inneh 2007, p. 107). Although Ibafe (2007, p. 43) argued that the Odigba was introduced during the Ogiso period (c. 900–c. 1170 AD) by Ogiso Ere, along with other symbolically important Emwin Arhe, such as the Ada (ceremonial sword) and the Ẹbẹn (ceremonial sword), this seems unlikely, as coral was only introduced in the late 15th century through trade with Portuguese merchants.

Many different kinds of Ẹrhu (headwear) are worn by the various figures depicted in the imagery of Benin royal artefacts. Through comparisons with ceremonial regalia still worn by chiefs and members of the royal court, including the Ọba himself, some Ẹrhu have been used to identify the different figures depicted. For example, the conical hat worn by high-ranking town chiefs as part of the pangolin regalia, still worn at ceremonies, is also visible on figures on some Ama-Ẹrọnmwọn (bronze relief plaques) ( ). Other examples include the distinctive bell-shaped helmet associated with the Iyasẹ ( ). Figures who wear a shallow-brimmed hat and a cross have been identified as Ewua or Ohensa priests ( ).

Different kinds of helmets and headwear were worn by warriors, reflecting the many different ranks and roles in the army at any given time, as well as developing trends that were in turn represented on Emwin Arhe created at different points in time. Warrior figures wearing helmets covered in cowrie shells were carved on the Aken'ni Elao (carved tusks) (Blackmun 1984, p. 330), yet on the brass Ama, warriors are sometimes depicted wearing helmets made from crocodile hide or horsehair with a front plate (Osadolor in Plankensteiner 2007, cat. no. 238, p. 457). Helmets made from horsehair with a front plate are one of the more common types represented on the Ama-Ẹrọnmwọn, and the demand for black horse tails was noted by both Portuguese and British traders during the late 17th and 18th centuries (Osadolor in Plankensteiner 2007, cat. no. 238, p. 457). Other warriors depicted on Ama-Ẹrọnmwọn wear helmets with a rounded top, chinstrap, and sometimes also a feather tucked into the left side. These types of headwear are known as Ẹrhu Iyokuo.

Attire worn for battle also differed from that worn for ceremonial occasions, such as the pointed headwear worn in combination with an ornate leopard-head tunic by war chiefs. Depictions of figures wearing this attire on brass Ama-Ẹrọnmwọn (bronze relief plaques) have been interpreted as representing the war chiefs’ participation in the war-ritual Isiokuo festival (Osadolor in Plankensteiner 2007, cat. no. 238, p. 457).

Another distinctive form of headwear is that worn by figures identified as leopard hunters on the brass Ama-Ẹrọnmwọn (relief plaques). These large helmets cover almost all of the leopard hunters’ faces except for their noses, eyes, and upper lips, and are made of an unusual material that remains unidentifiable (Plankensteiner 2007, cat. nos. 68–69, p. 322).

European figures are also portrayed with distinctive hats, such as Portuguese three-cornered hats. These depictions reflect the artists’ keen observation and highlight the impact of European trade and military assistance (Ezra 1992).

Depictions of Ewi (mudfish) are among the most frequent motifs in the Emwin Arhe (royal treasures). Mudfish hold an important place in Edo belief, both as representations of the god Olokun and as symbols of royalty (Plankensteiner 2007, p. 410), as well as of “prosperity, peace, well-being and fertility” (Ben-Amos 1976, p. 245). Mudfish are also particularly common animals for sacrifice, and mudfish-shaped Orhiẹvbẹ (kola-nut boxes) were used to make offerings or store kola nuts.

Yet, the appearance of Ewi across the Emwin Arhe is not consistent, and it has been argued that different species of mudfish were depicted by Edo artists, each with different qualities and capabilities. For example, the electric shock of Malapterurus electricus resembles the fierceness of the Ọba, while the liminal qualities of the Synodontis clarias mudfish, which lives both on land and in water, similarly reflect the Ọba’s rule over land and sea (Gallagher 1983, p. 93). With these different qualities in mind, the mudfish is an important symbol of Benin kingship and royalty.

Sometimes the Ọba was depicted by artists with mudfish rather than legs (see Ọba with Mudfish Legs).

Uman-ague is a badge in the form of an equal-armed cross. The cross with straight-sided arms is known as the “Greek cross,” while the type with V-shaped arms, narrowing toward the centre, is known as the “Maltese cross.”

Uman-ague is usually worn around the neck by members of the Ewua or by the Ohensa ( ). The equal-armed cross has various meanings: as a symbol of cosmic order, it represents the number four and references the “four cardinal points established by the High God Osanobua when he created the world” (Girshick Ben-Amos 1999, p. 64), as well as the “crossroads or junction that serves as the point of connection between the natural and spiritual worlds” ( ). Paula Girshick Ben-Amos ( ) also argues that when used on the Aken'ni Elao (altar tusk), the cross, together with the Ivie okpagbaru (royal bead), constitutes an “emblematic reference” to Ọba Ẹsigie.

The cross also references the Portuguese missionaries who brought Christianity to the Kingdom during the reign of Ọba Ẹsigie, although the symbol was already in use before the arrival of Europeans ( ). The Maltese cross is thought to have been introduced by Ọba Eresonyẹn as part of his efforts to encourage the worship of the High God Osanobua during his reign ( ; ). Regardless, Uman-ague is often associated with Ọba Ẹsigie.

The Ukpẹ ọkhọkhọ is a distinctive hairstyle and coral-beaded headdress worn by the Iy’Ọba. The headdress includes a projection called the ‘ede Iy’Ọba’, which indicates that “her spiritual potentialities are closer in quality to those of her ruling son than they are to the powers of the nobles” (Aigbe Eson and Ihama Iguneronmwon in Blackmun 1991, p. 60). The Iy’Ọba’s hairstyle and headdress are meant to resemble ukpe-okhue, or the curved parrot’s beak (Kaplan 1993).

Barbara Blackmun (1991, p. 60) argued that “Benin art is multivocal, and any depiction of the Iye Ọba [sic] is a reference to Idia. Every woman who holds the office of lye Ọba plays the part of Idia, the ideal model of an Ọba’s mother.” Wearing the Ukpẹ ọkhọkhọ is one of the ways the Iy’Ọba plays the role of Idia.

Akọn Ẹkpẹn are necklaces or neck ornaments made of strung leopard’s teeth. They are worn by figures to signify their high rank and military prowess, as well as by their leaders, the Ezọmọ or Iyasẹ. They are often worn alongside quadrangular Ẹroro (bells) and Ohian Ẹkpẹn (leopard tunics).

The Akọn Ẹkpẹn is clearly and profoundly related to the symbolism of the Ẹkpẹn (leopard) and its association with the Ọba (king), who is metaphorically referred to as ‘ẹkpẹn ne owa’, the ‘leopard of the home’. On the other hand, the Ẹkpẹn is often referred to as the ‘king of the bush’, embodying ferocity, aggression, strength, and leadership—qualities attributed to the Ọba (Nevadomsky 1988). This intricate link between the leopard, the monarch, and his military leaders reinforces the complex hierarchy and spiritual authority central to Benin’s courtly art.

Figures bearing an equal-armed cross on the chest have been interpreted variously as messengers from Ife ( ), or, more likely, as either Ẹwua officials or Ohensa priests ( ; ). These differing interpretations highlight the ambiguity of the visual language of Emwin Arre (royal treasures), in which the meaning and identity of a figure may depend on the type of object on which it appears, the period in which the object was made, and the combination of motifs surrounding it.

The Ẹwua guild was established by Ọba Ẹsigie, and its members were responsible for waking the Ọba each morning ( ). In 1959, Ọba Akẹnzua II identified the cross-bearing figure specifically as an Ẹwua official (in Bradbury 1959, B.S. 207/2). Alternatively, the figure has been identified as an Ohensa, a priest of the High God Osanobua, whose worship also became closely associated with Christianity following the arrival of Portuguese missionaries during the reign of Ọba Ẹsigie.

These figures were cast in brass and bronze both as freestanding figures and as elements within the compositions of Ama-Ẹrọnmwọn (bronze relief plaques), as well as being carved on 18th- and 19th-century Aken'ni Elao (carved tusks). They are typically identifiable by their rounded, bowler-like hats with narrow brims and the equal-armed cross pendants worn on their chests. In their left hand they hold an L-shaped hammer known as Umọmọ, while in their right hand they sometimes carry a tall, straight staff ( ).