Many different kinds of Ẹrhu (headwear) are worn by the various figures depicted in the imagery of Benin royal artefacts. Through comparisons with ceremonial regalia still worn by chiefs and members of the royal court, including the Ọba himself, some Ẹrhu have been used to identify the different figures depicted. For example, the conical hat worn by high-ranking town chiefs as part of the pangolin regalia, still worn at ceremonies, is also visible on figures on some Ama-Ẹrọnmwọn (bronze relief plaques) ( ). Other examples include the distinctive bell-shaped helmet associated with the Iyasẹ ( ). Figures who wear a shallow-brimmed hat and a cross have been identified as Ewua or Ohensa priests ( ).

Different kinds of helmets and headwear were worn by warriors, reflecting the many different ranks and roles in the army at any given time, as well as developing trends that were in turn represented on Emwin Arhe created at different points in time. Warrior figures wearing helmets covered in cowrie shells were carved on the Aken'ni Elao (carved tusks) (Blackmun 1984, p. 330), yet on the brass Ama, warriors are sometimes depicted wearing helmets made from crocodile hide or horsehair with a front plate (Osadolor in Plankensteiner 2007, cat. no. 238, p. 457). Helmets made from horsehair with a front plate are one of the more common types represented on the Ama-Ẹrọnmwọn, and the demand for black horse tails was noted by both Portuguese and British traders during the late 17th and 18th centuries (Osadolor in Plankensteiner 2007, cat. no. 238, p. 457). Other warriors depicted on Ama-Ẹrọnmwọn wear helmets with a rounded top, chinstrap, and sometimes also a feather tucked into the left side. These types of headwear are known as Ẹrhu Iyokuo.

Attire worn for battle also differed from that worn for ceremonial occasions, such as the pointed headwear worn in combination with an ornate leopard-head tunic by war chiefs. Depictions of figures wearing this attire on brass Ama-Ẹrọnmwọn (bronze relief plaques) have been interpreted as representing the war chiefs’ participation in the war-ritual Isiokuo festival (Osadolor in Plankensteiner 2007, cat. no. 238, p. 457).

Another distinctive form of headwear is that worn by figures identified as leopard hunters on the brass Ama-Ẹrọnmwọn (relief plaques). These large helmets cover almost all of the leopard hunters’ faces except for their noses, eyes, and upper lips, and are made of an unusual material that remains unidentifiable (Plankensteiner 2007, cat. nos. 68–69, p. 322).

European figures are also portrayed with distinctive hats, such as Portuguese three-cornered hats. These depictions reflect the artists’ keen observation and highlight the impact of European trade and military assistance (Ezra 1992).

Odigba (coral-beaded collar) is a rigid neck collar made of coral beads, worn as part of ceremonial attire only by senior princes who have been made Enigie (Inneh 2007, p. 107). Although Ibafe (2007, p. 43) argued that the Odigba was introduced during the Ogiso period (c. 900–c. 1170 AD) by Ogiso Ere, along with other symbolically important Emwin Arhe, such as the Ada (ceremonial sword) and the Ẹbẹn (ceremonial sword), this seems unlikely, as coral was only introduced in the late 15th century through trade with Portuguese merchants.

The Udahae is a forehead band made from coral beads and worn by chiefs. Sometimes a white Igan (feather) from the Oɛɣohɔ (vulturine fish eagle) is tucked into the left side of the Udahae. According to Benin oral tradition, the Udahae was introduced by Ọba Ezoti, the first son of Ọba Ewuare I. During his coronation, Ezoti was shot in the forehead with a poisoned arrow. To stop the bleeding, a band of red beads was wrapped around his forehead while he made public appearances. Fourteen days later, he died from his wound. Since then, Benin chiefs have worn the red-beaded Udahae around their foreheads to commemorate the cap used by Ezoti to stop the bleeding (Egharevba 1968, p. 21).

The Ohian Ẹkpẹn is a significant ceremonial garment in Benin royal court art, primarily associated with warriors and military officials, underscoring their delegated authority and ferocious skill as warriors (Ben-Amos 1995, fig. 93).

The leopard tunic is typically made from leather and cloth decorated to imitate leopard skin, usually with the face of a leopard emblazoned on the chest using appliqué. An Akọn Ẹkpẹn (leopard tooth neck ornament) and quadrangular Ẹroro (bells) are often worn on top of the Ohian Ẹkpẹn. This tunic would be worn by the Ọba’s military chiefs (Blackmun 1984, p. 323).

In historical Benin, the Ọba held the exclusive right to distribute leopard skins to those officials to whom he delegated the power to take human life. This made the leopard tunic a potent symbol of delegated authority over life and death. Osarhieme Benson Osadolor (in Plankensteiner 2007, cat. no. 244, p. 459) recalled an Edo proverb: “It is the head of the leopard that accomplishes things for the leopard,” which is particularly significant for warrior chiefs, as this proverb indicates that the Ọba, known as the “Leopard of the Home,” relied on them to carry out his military campaigns.

Ẹbẹn are a type of ceremonial sword of significant importance in the Benin Kingdom. During ceremonies, titled chiefs would hold them or toss them during dances, thereby paying homage to the Ọba at these public events, particularly when a chief receives a certain status. It is forbidden for Ẹbẹn to touch the ground, so the chief must take extra precautions to avoid dropping the Ẹbẹn during the dance. Therefore, the Okae-Odionmwan (head of executioners) dances with the Umozo (warfare or executioner’s sword) behind the dancing chief.

There are two central ceremonial swords used in the royal court of the Benin Kingdom, one of which is the Ẹbẹn, along with the Ada (ceremonial swords). They are distinguished by their blades: the Ẹbẹn blade reflects the shape of a leaf or an oar. Sometimes, it is decorated with openwork designs and/or brass inlays, most commonly shaped as small Ẹbẹn and Ẹkpẹn (leopards). The handle of the Ẹbẹn also has an unusual ring-shaped form, which further differentiates it from the Ada.

Ẹkpoki are cylindrical boxes made by members of the Isekpokin (guild of leather workers) from leather and bark. In the late 19th century, some were also crafted from brass sheet with rich embossed ornamentation. Members of the Igun Ẹronmwon (guild of brass casters) might have created examples from cast brass, although only a single example of this kind is known today (inventory no. 212729). Ẹkpoki are used by the Ọba to present gifts to chiefs, while chiefs use leather Ẹkpoki to send kola nuts and other traditional items to one another (Inneh 2007, pp. 109–110). Ẹkpoki also feature in important rituals such as Iguẹ, during which the Ọba is ceremonially presented with an Ẹkpoki (Blackmun in Plankensteiner 2007, cat. no. 74, p. 328), as well as Ugie-Ewere, during which the Ọba is presented with an Ẹkpoki that symbolically contains a gift from the Ooni of Ife (Plankensteiner 2007, cat. no. 83, p. 336). This refers to an oral tradition that, at the coronation, the Ooni of Ife sent certain regalia. Gifts presented in Ẹkpoki could also have carried symbolic messages.

Ebe Amẹ refers to a wide variety of plants, particularly the leaves of the water fern or river leaf, found in riverine areas of southern Nigeria ( ). Artists from the Igun-Ẹrọnmwọn used these as a decorative motif in the background of most Ama-Ẹrọnmwọn (bronze relief plaques). The petals of the Ebe Amẹ, like the points of the ἀghàdàgháda (crossroads), represent the four cardinal directions: north, east, south, and west. The number four plays a foundational role in the Edo calendar, which is structured around four market days ( ).

Ẹroro (bells) frequently appear as ornaments worn by figures depicted on the Emwin Arhe, particularly on Ama-Eronmwon (bronze relief plaques) and Aken’ni Elao (carved tusks). These Ẹroro are most commonly quadrangular in form or, less commonly, cylindrical with rounded tops. Quadrangular Ẹroro worn around the neck are often part of the attire that indicates that figures can be interpreted as warriors, alongside the Akọn Ẹkpẹn (leopard tooth neck ornament) and the Ohian Ẹkpẹn (leopard tunics).

Uko ugbo-ohamwen is a chest band often worn around the chests of warriors depicted on the Ama-Ẹrọnmwọn (relief plaques) and is fortified with charms. The band was worn to increase the strength and endurance of warriors ( ). This fortified chest band has also been referred to as ukugba olila (Ine n’Igun in Bradbury 1959, B.S. 245; ; ).

Warrior chiefs or commanders are often depicted on the Emwin Arhe, in particular the Ama - Eronmwon (bronze relief plaques) and the Aken’ni Elao (carved tusks). Edo artists often represented Warrior Chiefs using attire such as Ohian Ẹkpẹn (leopard tunics) and Akọn Ẹkpen (leopard’s tooth neck ornament), which they are often shown wearing during ceremonial occasions such as Isiokuo. Warrior chiefs, or the attendants who often accompany them, may also carry an Asa (shield) or an Ẹbẹn (ceremonial sword). Additionally, a number of representations in both brass and ivory show War Chiefs riding on horseback, an indication of their social status, military rank and prowess (Osadolor in Plankensteiner 2007, cat. nr.62, p.316; cat. nr.244, p.459).

In the Edo military hierarchy, there are four key titles for those bestowed with the highest rank, namely the Iyase or the Generalissimo who was second in command to the Ọba. Next in line is the non-hereditary title of Ezomo, part of the Uzama Nihinron. Next in command, is the Edogun, commander of the Ekaiwe, made up of the sons of the Ọba’s daughters. The Edogun would brief the Ọba on war plans, strategies and tactics, the general appraisal of military strength and also had the role of declaring war by displaying the Asa (battle shield) and then marking the end of war by returning the Asa. The Ekegbian, head of the Isienmwenro (royal guards in the Ọba Palace and with detachments in most Edo towns), was next in the chain of command. Only the Ọba could command the Ekegbian to mobilise the Isienmwenro for battle (Osadolor 2007, pp.78-9).

The Iyase can often be identified by the rounded bell-shaped headwear artists depict him wearing across different types of Emwin Arhe, from Ama - Eronmwon (bronze relief plaques), to Aken ni’Elao, and carved representations on idiophone staffs. However, identifying the Ezomo is less easy to identify, although figures wearing a peaked helmet and the usual symbols of military commanders have been identified as representations of the Ezomo (Blackmun in Plankensteiner 2007, cat. nrs. 118-9, p.363)

Iwu are facial and body markings (scarifications) that were historically worn by Edo men and women. However, since the 1960s, the practice has been nearly extinct (Aisien 2011). In the past, Iwu were used as a way of proving that one was an Edo citizen, and the ceremony of having Iwu completed was an important rite of passage for men and women. The Osiwu, who also practised circumcision and other surgical procedures, would carry out the procedure of adding Iwu. There are different types of Iwu: ‘blades’ worn on the torso (Iwu-eko), and those worn on the face, such as Ikharo (three or four markings above the eyebrows), Irho (two narrow ‘blades’ worn on each cheek), Ovbihue (nasal ‘blades’), Ovbi-agbanmwen (chin ‘blade’), and Igho-okpa/Ukpgho (three forehead ‘blades’) (Aisien 2011, p. 22).

The number of Iwu also varied depending on the identity of the person wearing them. For example, royal men would wear six ‘blades’ on their torso, whilst men who were not royal would wear seven ‘blades’. Meanwhile, the Ọba’s female children would wear fifteen ‘blades’, and all other women would wear sixteen (Aisien 2011).

Akọn Ẹkpẹn are necklaces or neck ornaments made of strung leopard’s teeth. They are worn by figures to signify their high rank and military prowess, as well as by their leaders, the Ezọmọ or Iyasẹ. They are often worn alongside quadrangular Ẹroro (bells) and Ohian Ẹkpẹn (leopard tunics).

The Akọn Ẹkpẹn is clearly and profoundly related to the symbolism of the Ẹkpẹn (leopard) and its association with the Ọba (king), who is metaphorically referred to as ‘ẹkpẹn ne owa’, the ‘leopard of the home’. On the other hand, the Ẹkpẹn is often referred to as the ‘king of the bush’, embodying ferocity, aggression, strength, and leadership—qualities attributed to the Ọba (Nevadomsky 1988). This intricate link between the leopard, the monarch, and his military leaders reinforces the complex hierarchy and spiritual authority central to Benin’s courtly art.