Ọyanyan (horses), along with their riders, are significant motifs in the visual language of the Emwin Arhe (royal treasures), appearing across various media and periods. Although the Benin Kingdom lies in the tropical region of West Africa affected by the tsetse fly, according to oral tradition, a small, stocky breed of horses introduced via trade routes from Nupe and Hausa was known in the kingdom from the 13th century (Dolz in Plankensteiner 2007, cat. no. 215, p. 434).

In 1505, King Manuel of Portugal sent a horse, alongside other luxurious gifts such as satin and Indian silk, to one of the Ọbas, most likely Ẹsigie, as a gift (Ryder 1969, p. 41). An account believed to have been written by the Dutch traveller Dierick Ruiters in 1602 described how he travelled from the port of Ughoton to Benin City on horseback (Blackmun in Plankensteiner 2007, cat. no. 138, p. 367). In the same account, Ruiters also described how the Ọba and his courtiers rode on horseback as part of ceremonial processions (Blackmun in Plankensteiner 2007, cat. no. 221, p. 441). A scene of this kind is also featured in the view of the city of Benin in Olfert Dapper’s Description of Africa (1668).

Ọyanyan therefore embody themes relating to military power, foreign interaction, and royal authority (Nevadomsky 1986), as well as “dignity and achievement” (Curnow in Plankensteiner 2007, cat. no. 115, p. 351).

A variety of different kinds of Ahianmwẹ (birds) were depicted by artists from the palace guilds on royal artefacts over the centuries. The precise identification and interpretation of these birds, and the meanings attributed to them, vary. Some of the most commonly depicted are the Akala (white-backed vulture), Oɛɣohɔ (vulturine fish eagle), and Esughusughu (owl).

The Akala is usually depicted on top of Osogan, potent staffs kept by priests for the worship of Osun. Its ewawa (beak) is associated with the azen (witches), and the Akala is associated with “death, abandonment, morbidity, and spoils” ( ). The Oɛɣohɔ is known as the “king of the day birds,” and its feathers are often worn by chiefs in their headwear as symbols of respected old age and proper chieftaincy ( ).